Achievement test characteristics

Achievement test have some important characteristic, UGC net exam have a question about it. An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of achievement test is astandardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with tests that measure aptitude, a more general and stable cognitive trait.

Achievement test scores are often used in an educational system to determine what level of instruction for which a student is prepared. High achievement scores usually indicate a mastery of grade-level material, and the readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation or repeating a course grade. Under No Child Left Behind, achievement tests have taken on an additional role of assessing proficiencyof students. Proficiency is defined as the amount of grade-appropriate knowledge and skills a student has acquired up to the point of testing. Better teaching practices are expected to increase the amount learned in a school year, and therefore to increase achievement scores, and yield more "proficient" students than before.

When writing achievement test items, writers usually begin with a list ofcontent standards (either written by content specialists or based on state-created content standards) which specify exactly what students are expected to learn in a given school year. The goal of item writers is to create test items that measure the most important skills and knowledge attained in a given grade-level. The number and type of test items written is determined by the grade-level content standards. Content validity is determined by the representativeness of the items included on the final test.

Effect of Validity and Reliability in Research.

The precision with which you measure things also has a major impact on sample size: the worse your measurements, the more subjects you need to lift the signal (the effect) out of the noise   (the errors in measurement). Precision is expressed as validity and reliability. Validity represents how  well a variable measures what it is supposed to. Validity is important in descriptive studies: if the validity of the main variables is poor; you may  need thousands rather than hundreds of subjects.

Reliability tells you how reproducible your measures are on a retest, so it impacts experimental studies. The more reliable a measure, the less subjects you need to see, a small change in the measure. For example, a controlled trial with 20 subjects in each group or a crossover with 10 subjects may be sufficient to characterize even a small effect, if the measure is highly reliable.

Video conferencing Impact on education - UGC NET EXAM

Videoconferencing (VC) is the conduct of a videoconference (also known as a video conference or videoteleconference) by a set of telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way video and audio transmissions. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware.

Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference or multiple locations rather than individuals.It is an intermediate form of videotelephony, first used commercially in Germany during the late-1930s and later in the United States during the early 1970s as part of AT&T's development of Picturephone technology.

With the introduction of relatively low cost, high capacity broadband telecommunication services in the late 1990s, coupled with powerful computing processors and video compression techniques, videoconferencing has made significant inroads in business, education, medicine and media.

Videoconferencing provides students with the opportunity to learn by participating in two-way communication forums. Furthermore, teachers and lecturers worldwide can be brought to remote or otherwise isolated educational facilities. Students from diverse communities and backgrounds can come together to learn about one another, although language barriers will continue to persist. Such students are able to explore, communicate, analyze and share information and ideas with one another. Through videoconferencing, students can visit other parts of the world to speak with their peers, and visit museums and educational facilities. Such virtual field trips can provide enriched learning opportunities to students, especially those in geographically isolated locations, and to the economically disadvantaged. Small schools can use these technologies to pool resources and provide courses, such as in foreign languages, which could not otherwise be offered.

A few examples of benefits that videoconferencing can provide in campus environments include:

1. faculty members keeping in touch with classes while attending conferences;
2. guest lecturers brought in classes from other institutions;
3. researchers collaborating with colleagues at other institutions on a regular basis without loss of time due to travel;
4. schools with multiple campuses collaborating and sharing professors;
5. schools from two separate nations engaging in cross-cultural exchanges;
6. faculty members participating in thesis defenses at other institutions;
7. administrators on tight schedules collaborating on budget preparation from different parts of campus;
8. faculty committee auditioning scholarship candidates;
9. researchers answering questions about grant proposals from agencies or review committees;
10. student interviews with an employers in other cities, 
11.  teleseminars.

What are the two main approaches in educational research ?

There are two main approaches in educational research. The first is a basic approach. This approach is also referred to as an academic research approach.The second approach is applied research  or a contract research approach. Both of these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.

Basic approach

Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory. Researchers with this background “design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories”.Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.

Applied approach

The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research.Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice.Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by this employer. The goal of this research is “to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings”

What is Educational research ?

Educational research refers to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including: “student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics”.

Educational researchers have come to the consensus that educational research must be conducted in a rigorous and systematic way, although what this implies is often debated. There are a variety of disciplines which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. The overlap in disciplines creates a broad range from which methodology can be drawn. The findings of educational research also need to be interpreted within the context in which they were discovered as they may not be applicable in every time or place

What are the Characteristics educational research ?

Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:

Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

• Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a  new purpose.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in        understanding, prediction and/or control.
• Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in    collecting and analyzing the data.
• Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
• Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

Audiovisual education

Audiovisual education or multimedia-based education (MBE) is instruction where particular attention is paid to the audio and visual presentation of the material with the goal of improving comprehension and retention.

After the use of training films and other visual aids during World War II, audiovisual technology gradually developed in sophistication and its use became more widespread in educational establishments such as schools, colleges, universities, museums and galleries, as well as at tourist destinations, such as the purpose-built circular cinema, Arromanches 360 , at Arromanches-les-Bains, which shows a 360° film presentation of the Normandy landings.

Children learn best by observing and copying the behaviors of adults. It is therefore evident that learning is more effective when sensory experiences are stimulated. These include pictures, slides, radios, videos and other audiovisual tools. According to the Webster dictionary, audio-visual aids is defined as ‘training or educational materials directed at both the senses of hearing and the sense of sight, films, recordings, photographs, etc. used in classroom instructions, library collections or the likes”. The concept of audiovisual aids is not new and can be traced back to seventeenth century when John Amos Comenius (1592-1670), a Bohemian educator, introduced pictures as teaching aids in his book Orbis Sensualium Pictus (“picture of the Sensual World”) that was illustrated with 150 drawings of everyday life. Similarly, Jean Rousseau (17122-1788) and JH Pestalozzi (1756-1827) advocated the use of visual and play materials in teaching. More recently, audiovisual aids were also widely used during and after World War II by the armed service. The successful use of picture and other visual aids in U.S armed forces during World War II proved the effectiveness of instructional tools.There are various types of audiovisual materials ranging from filmstrips, microforms, slides, projected opaque materials, tape recording and flashcards. In the current digital world, audiovisual aids have grown exponentially with several multimedia such as educational DVDs, PowerPoint, television educational series, youtube, and other online materials. The goal of audio-visual aids is to enhance teacher’s ability to present the lesson in simple, effective and easy to understand for the students. Audiovisual material make learning more permanent since students use more than one sense. It is important to create awareness for the state and federal ministry of education as policy makers in secondary schools of the need to inculcate audiovisual resource as main teaching pedagogy in curricula. The outcome is to promote the audiovisual material in secondary schools because they lack the resource to produce them. The visual instruction makes abstract ideas more concrete to the learners. This is to provide a basis for schools to understand the important roles in encouraging and supporting the use of audiovisual resource. In addition, studies have shown that there is significant difference between the use and non-use of audiovisual material in teaching and learning.

Objectives

1. To strengthen teachers skills in making teaching-learning process more effective
2. To attract and retain learners’ attention
3. To generate interest across different levels of students
4. To develop lesson plans that are simple and easy to follow
5. To make class more interactive and interesting
6. To focus on student-centered approach.

UGC NET 2016- JUNE: exam notification published

UGC NET exam notification published, the Central Board of Secondary Education announces holding of the National Eligibility Test (NET) on 10th July, 2016 (SUNDAY) for determining the eligibility of Indian nationals for the Eligibility for Assistant Professor only or Junior Research Fellowship & Eligibility for Assistant Professor Both in Indian universities and colleges. CBSE will conduct NET in 83 subjects at 89 selected NET Examination Cities spread across the country.  

The candidates who qualify for the award of Junior Research Fellowship are eligible to pursue research in the subject of their post-graduation or in a related subject and are also eligible for Assistant Professor. The universities, institutions, IITs and other national organizations may select the JRF awardees for whole time research work in accordance with the procedure prescribed by them. The award of JRF and Eligibility for Assistant Professor both OR Eligibility for Assistant Professor only will depend on the performance of the candidate in all three papers of NET. However, the candidates qualifying exclusively for Assistant Professor will not be considered for award of JRF.

Subject Code

IMPOTENT DATES

Online Application Form Submission: 12th April 2016

Last date for Applying Online: 12th May 2016

Last date of submission of Fee through online generated Bank Challan, at any branch of (SYNDICATE/CANARA/ICICI/HDFC BANK) :13th May 2016

Correction in Particulars of application form on the website :17th to 23rd May, 2016

Which which of the following variables cannot be expressed in quantitative terms ? A) socioeconomic status , B)material status, C)numerical aptitude D)professional attitude

Socio-economic status

Bloom's taxonomy history in education

Bloom's taxonomy is a way of distinguishing the fundamental questions within the education system. It is named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text,Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.

History

Although named after Bloom, the publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula and examinations.

The first volume of the taxonomy,Handbook I: Cognitive (Bloom et al. 1956) was published in 1956. "Handbook II: Affective" (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia 1965)Simpson (1966), Harrow (1972)and Dave (1975) A revised version of the taxonomy for the cognitive domain was created in 2000.

Explain about pedagogy in Education.

Pedagogy (etymology and pronunciation) is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education; it thus concerns the study and practice of how best to teach. Its aims range from the general (full development of the human being via liberal education) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills).

For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching people as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those instructive strategies, the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of instruction are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought. The teaching of adults, however, may be referred to as andragogy.

History

Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841)is the founding father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or, the theory of education. Herbart's educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens.Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical perspectives. Referring to the teaching process, Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application. Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind.

Etymology and pronunciation

The word comes from the Greek παιδαγωγία (paidagōgia), from παιδαγωγός (paidagōgos), in which παῖς (país, genitive παιδός, paidos) means "child" and ἄγω (ágō) means "lead"; thus literally "to lead the child".It is variously pronounced /ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/, /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, and /ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/.Negative connotations (in which the word is sometimes associated with pedantry) have existed at least from the time of Samuel Pepys (1650s).

Academic degrees

An academic degree, Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers (in the US and UK, earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed. D., Doctor of Education or a Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy).

Pedagogues

The word pedagogue was originally used in reference to the slave who escorted Roman children to school. In Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is primarily used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries) in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e.g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages, and human resource management. These are often recognised as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society.

The pedagogue's job is usually distinguished from a teacher's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills and cultural norms. There is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion. The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development.

In Denmark all pedagogues are trained at a series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The programme is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som pædagog).

It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to the above-mentioned Bachelor in Social Education.

In Hungary, the word pedagogue (pedagógus) is synonymous with teacher (tanár); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013, the 5-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice.

Explain about Hypothesis in research .

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research.

A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote the antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.

The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".

Uses

In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of the plot of a classical drama. The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις word hupothesis, meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".

In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by mathematicians,that of "investigating from a hypothesis." In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome calculations.Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.

In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.

In Entrepreneurial science, a hypothesis is used to formulate provisional ideas within a business setting. The formulated hypothesis is then evaluated where either the hypothesis is proven to be "true" or "false" through a verifiability- or falsifiability-oriented Experiment.

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.

In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis.:pp17,49–50 If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.

Scientific hypothesis

People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an "educated guess" because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.

According to Schick and Vaughn, researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities)
Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems.

What you mean by case study in Educational Reaserch ?

A case study Involves an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject (the case), as well as related ITS contextual conditions. Case studies with great frequency Appear throughout popular works. With an education Nearly anyone can lay claim to Having done a case study at some point in Their life. Also case studies can be produced by following method to the formal research. These case studies are likely to Appear in a formal research venues,: such as journals and professional conferences, rather than popular works. The RESULTING body of 'case study research''ve long had a prominent place in many disciplines and professions, ranging from psychology, anthropology, sociology, and political science to education, clinical science, social work, and administrative science.

In doing case study research, the "case" being an Studied May be single, organization, event, or action, for existing in a specific time and place. For instance, clinical science Both have produced well- known case studies of Individuals And Also case studies of clinical practices. However, when "case" is used in an abstract sense, as in a claim, a proposition, or an argument, Such a case can be the subject of many research methods, not just research case study.

Thomas offers the following definition of case study:

"Case studies are analyzes of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, Institutions, or other systems are Studied That holistically by one or more method. The case That is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance of a class of That phenomena Provides an analytical frame - an object - Within the study Which is Which Conducted and the case illuminates and explicates ".

ACCORDING TO J. Creswell, data collection in a case study OCCURS over a "sustained period of time."

One Sees the case study approach defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry investigates a phenomenon Within That Its Real-life context. Case-study research can mean single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, Relies on multiple sources of evidence, and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. As such, case study research Should not Be Confused With qualitative research , as case studies can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative data. Similarly, single-subject research Might Be taken as case studies of a sort, That except Repeated trials in the single-subject research permit the use of experimental Designs That would not be possible in typical case studies. At the same time, the Repeated trials can Provide a framework for making statistical inferences from quantitative data.

The case study is mistaken Sometimes,For the case method used in teaching, but the two are not the same.

What you mean by Quantitative Reaserch ?

In the natural sciences and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to Develop and employ mathematical models, theories and / or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is to quantitative research center Because It provides the critical connection Between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is any data in numerical form That Is Such statistics as, Percentages, etc.  The researcher Analyzes the data with the help of statistics. The researcher is hoping the numbers will yield an unbiased That result can be generalized to some larger population. Qualitative research, on the other hand, ASKs broad questions and collects data from word or Participants phenomena. The researcher looks for themes and describe the information in themes and patterns exclusive to That September of participants.

In social sciences, quantitative research is Widely used in psychology, economics, demography sociology, marketing, community health, health & human development, gender and political science, and less Frequently in anthropology and history. Research in mathematical sciences: such as physics is Also 'quantitative' by definition, though esta use of the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term Relates to empirical methods, Originating in Both philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, Which Contrast With qualitative research methods.

Qualitative methods produce information only on the individual cases Studied, and more generally any conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify Which of Such hypotheses are true.

A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology journals Between 1935 and 2005 found That roughly two Thirds of These articles used quantitative methods.

Overview

Quantitative research is made using scientific methods Generally, Which can include:

The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
The development of instruments and methods for measurement
Experimental control and manipulation of variables
Collection of empirical data
Modeling and analysis of data
Quantitative research is Often contrasted With qualitative research, Which is the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, Including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a manner That Does not Involve mathematical models.  Approaches to quantitative psychology Were first modeled on quantitative Approaches in the physical sciences by Gustav Fechner In His work on psychophysics, Which built on the work of Ernst Heinrich Weber. Commonly, Although a distinction is drawn Between qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has-been Argued That the two go hand in hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of science, Kuhn Concludes That "Large Amounts of qualitative work Usually Have Been prerequisite to fruitful quantification in the physical sciences." Often Qualitative research is used to gain general sense of phenomena and That to form theories can be tested using Further quantitative research. For instance, in the social sciences Often qualitative research methods are used to gain better understanding of intentionality Such things as (from the speech response of the researchee) and meaning (why did this person / group say something and what did it mean to them? ) (Kieron Yeoman).

, Although quantitative investigation of the world has Existed since people first Began to record events or objects That HAD Been Counted, the modern notion of quantitative Processes Have Their roots in Auguste Comte's positivist framework.  Positivism emphasized the use of the scientific method Through observation to empirically test hypotheses explaining and predicting what, where, why, how, and when to phenomena occurred. Believed positivist scholars like Comte only previous scientific methods rather than spiritual Explanations for human behavior Could advance.

Explain about Educational Research Methods

The basis for educational research is the scientific method. The scientific method directed questions use and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process.In This scenario questions are answered by the analysis of data That Is Collected Specifically for the purpose of answering These questions. Hypotheses are written and subsequently PROVED data or Disproved by Which leads to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data are used under esta That method are qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative research
Qualitative research use descriptive data Which is in nature. Tools That educational Researchers use in collecting qualitative data include: observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant Such products as journals, diaries, images or blogs, .

Types of qualitative research
Case study
Ethnography
Phenomenological Research
Narrative Research
Historical Research
Quantitative research
That research use quantitative data is numerical and is based on the assumption That describes the numbers will double reality. Often Statistics are applied to find relationships Between variables.

Types of quantitative research
Descriptive Survey Research
Experimental Research
Single - Subject Research
Causal - Comparative Research
Correlational Research
Meta-analysis

Combination methods
Also there exists a new school of thought That These derivatives of the scientific method are far too reductionistic in nature,. Since educational Such research includes other disciplines as psychology, sociology, anthropology, science, and philosophy .Refers to work done and in a wide variety of contexts [3] That it is Proposed Should Researchers use "multiple research and theoretical constructs Approaches". This Could mean using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods as well as from common methodology Mentioned above the fields. In social research esta phenomenon is Referred to as triangulation (social science) This notion is well Summarized by the work of Barrow in His text An introduction to philosophy of education.:

"Since educational issues are of many different kinds and logical types, it is to be expected That quite different types of research Should be Brought into play on different occasions. The question is not Whether THEREFORE research into teaching Should be Conducted by Means of Quantitative Measures (on some such grounds as That They are more 'objective') or qualitative Measures (on some such grounds as That They are more 'insightful'), but what kind of research can be Utilized sensibly to look Into This aspect of teaching particularly as Opposed to that. "

Educational Reaserch and it's characters

Educational research Refers to a variety of methods, [in Which Individuals Evaluate different aspects of education including: "student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics"

Educational Researchers Have Come to the consensus That educational research must be Conducted in a Rigorous and systematic way, , Although what is esta IMPLIES Often debated. There are a variety of disciplines Which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. The overlap in disciplines Creates a broad range from Which methodology can be drawn.  The findings of educational research Also need to be Interpreted Within the context in Which They Were discovered As They May not be applicable in every time or place.

Characteristics

Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research

Educational research Attempts to solve a problem.
Research Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using Existing data for a new purpose.
Research is based upon observable empirical evidence or experience.
Research Demands accurate observation and description.
Generally employs Research Procedures Carefully designed and Rigorous analysis.
Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories That will help in understanding, prediction and / or control.
Research requires familiarity With the expertise-field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
Research Attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and Takes great pains to validate the Procedures employed.
Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity Which is directional but refines Often the problem or questions as the research progresses.
Research is Reported to Carefully Recorded and other persons interested in the problem.

UGC NET EXAM - sampling.

In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.

The sampling process comprises several stages:

Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Data which can be selected
Population definition
Successful statistical practice is based on focused problem definition. In sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population. Sometimes what defines a population is obvious. For example, a manufacturer needs to decide whether a batch of material from production is of high enough quality to be released to the customer, or should be sentenced for scrap or rework due to poor quality. In this case, the batch is the population. Although the population of interest often consists of physical objects, sometimes we need to sample over time, space, or some combination of these dimensions. For instance, an investigation of supermarket staffing could examine checkout line length at various times, or a study on endangered penguins might aim to understand their usage of various hunting grounds over time. For the time dimension, the focus may be on periods or discrete occasions.

UGC NET EXAM - Scientific Method.

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.The Oxford English Dictionary defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."

The scientific method is an ongoing process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas (hypotheses) about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further observations about nature. In general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed.

Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are frequently shared in common between them. The overall process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions.A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments. Under modern interpretations, a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.

The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take place in a college lab, on a kitchen table, at CERN's Large Hadron Collider, at the bottom of an ocean, on Mars, and so on. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles.Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (or to the same degree), and are not always in the same order.

Overview
The DNA example below is a synopsis of this method
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), 965–1039 Iraq. A polymath, considered by some to be the father of modern scientific methodology, due to his emphasis on experimental data and reproducibility of its results.

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). "Kepler shows his keen logical sense in detailing the whole process by which he finally arrived at the true orbit. This is the greatest piece of Retroductive reasoning ever performed." – C. S. Peirce, c. 1896, on Kepler's reasoning through explanatory hypotheses

According to Morris Kline, "Modern science owes its present flourishing state to a new scientific method which was fashioned almost entirely by Galileo Galilei" (1564−1642). Dudley Shapere takes a more measured view of Galileo's contribution.

UGC NET EXAM- Teaching Method.

Teaching method

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction to be implemented by teachers to achieve the desired learning in students. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught and partly by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about. Davis (1997) suggests that the design and selection of teaching methods must take into account not only the nature of the subject matter but also how students learn.In today’s school the trend is that it encourages a lot of creativity. It is a known fact that human advancement comes through reasoning. This reasoning and original thought enhances creativity. The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher centered and student centered. In Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning, Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.In Student-Centered Approach to Learning, while teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessments are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these.

Methods of instruction

The lecture method is just one of several teaching methods, though in schools it’s usually considered the primary one. It isn’t surprising, either. The lecture method is convenient and usually makes the most sense, especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the standard for most college courses, when there can be several hundred students in the classroom at once; lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the most general manner, while still conveying the information that he or she feels is most important, according to the lesson plan.While the lecture method gives the instructor or teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material, the students plays a passive role which may hinder learning. While this method facilitates large-class communication, the lecturer must make constant and conscious effort to become aware of student problems and engage the students to give verbal feedback. It can be used to arouse interest in a subject provided the instructor has effective writing and speaking skills.

Demonstrating
Demonstrating is the process of teaching through examples or experiments. For example, a science teacher may teach an idea by performing an experiment for students. A demonstration may be used to prove a fact through a combination of visual evidence and associated reasoning.

Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow students to personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed through demonstration, becomes personally relatable.

UGC NET EXAM- Education Research.

Educational research refers to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including: “student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics”.

Educational researchers have come to the consensus that educational research must be conducted in a rigorous and systematic way, although what this implies is often debated.There are a variety of disciplines which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy.The overlap in disciplines creates a broad range from which methodology can be drawn.The findings of educational research also need to be interpreted within the context in which they were discovered as they may not be applicable in every time or place.

Educational research attempts to solve a problem. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Research demands accurate observation and description. Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control. Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data. Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed. Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.
Approaches
There are two main approaches in educational research. The first is a basic approach. This approach is also referred to as an academic research approach.The second approach is applied research  or a contract research approach.Both of these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.

Basic approach
Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory.Researchers with this background “design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories”. Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.

Applied approach
The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research.Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice.Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by this employer.The goal of this research is “to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings”.

The following are several defining characteristics that were written by Gary Anderson to compare basic (academic) and applied (contract) research.

Basic (Academic) Research Applied (Contract) Research 1 Is sponsored by an agency committed to the general advancement of knowledge. Is sponsored by an agency with a vested interest in the results. 2 Results are the property of society and the research community. Results become the property of the sponsor.