Do you want to become a lawyer in India ? you know Autonomous law schools in India ?

In India, autonomous law schools are the law schools founded pursuant to the second-generation reforms for legal education sought to be implemented by the Bar Council of India. The first such autonomous law school was the National Law School, Bangalore which admitted its first batch in 1987. Since then a number of other national law schools have been established all over India and various other States are also considering options to establish such schools. Quite in contrast with the existing pattern of legal education in India, the proposed autonomous law schools varied in structural design and in various other respects. Some of these can be identified through the characteristics they carry, these being;

• Autonomous status of the law schools: This implied that the law schools carried either a 'deemed university' or a 'university' status, which empowered them to grant their own degree and which was recognized by other institutions in terms of the University Grants Commission regulations.
• Five year law programme: Earlier law degrees were granted only to those candidates who had already completed their graduation and after three years of formal legal education. However, the admission to these autonomous law schools were only to those candidates who had completed Grade 12.
• Integrated degrees: In these autonomous law schools, students studied for a law degree in integration with another degree of their choice. This allowed prospective advocates to have understanding of areas other than law. It also compensated for the lack of three years of formal education of other subjects that candidates in traditional three year law degree programme carried. Initially the choice of second degree was confined to B.A. (Bachelor of Arts). However later with time other choices were also being offered like B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science), B.B.A. (Bachelor of Business Administration), B.Com.(Bachelor of Commerce), etc.
• Intensive legal education: These law schools were given autonomy to devise the imparting of the curriculum in a manner which would best suit the candidate's ability to understand legal concepts and ability to appreciate various issues involved in legal setting and instill in them the merit and reasoning standards required for a high professional conducts. Also a standout features of these institutions is that these are single subject universities where the main thrust of education is on law with other complementary social sciences.
• National status of law schools: These Schools are recognized by the university grants commission as "state universities" and are affiliated to the Bar Council of India. Each of these law schools were to be established under a specific legislation, to be passed by the State legislature of the State desirous of establishing a law school. In terms of these legislation, these law schools were required to establish and practice excellent and high standards, at par with other national level institutions imparting education in other wakes of social life. The conferment of national status also make admittance to these law schools at a prestigious choice and thus inviting meritorious students to get inclined to join legal profession.
• Involvement of legal luminaries: To improve standards of legal education and ensure education imparted in these institutions met desired standards, the Bar Council of India involved various prestigious and talented individuals with these law schools. The most notable of these was the involvement of highly placed constitutional functionaries, such as the Chief Justice of India or the Chief Justice of various High Courts as the "Visitors" and often "Chancellors" of these law schools, which implied a constant involvement and supervision of elite figures of legal profession in India with these law schools.The first autonomous law school established to implement the reforms in legal education in India was the National Law School of India University (popularly "NLS") which was established in Bangalore in terms of the National Law School of India Act, 1986 passed by the Legislative Assembly of the State of Karnataka. The first batch to NLS was admitted in 1988 and the establishing Director was Prof. N.R. Madhava Menon, who is considered as a jurist in his own right (and who subsequently went on to be the founding Vice-Chancellor of the premier National University of Juridical Sciences, Calcutta). While the first batch of NLS passed out in 1993, it was only until the starting of the next decade that legal education through the medium of national law schools got popular.Following the NLS model, various other States also passed legislation in their respective State Legislative Assemblies to establish national law schools. While these essentially differ from NLS in terms of modalities etc., the structure and model of imparting legal education in these later law schools has remained the same. In the order of their date of establishment, these law schools are;
  1. National Law School of India University, Bangalore
  2. National Law Institute University, Bhopal
  3. NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad
  4. The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata
  5. National Law University, Jodhpur, Jodhpur
  6. Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur
  7. Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar
  8. Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala
  9. Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow
  10. National University of Advanced Legal Studies, Kochi
  11. Chanakya National Law University, Patna
  12. National Law University, Delhi, New Delhi
  13. Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University, Visakhapatnam
  14. National Law University Odisha, Cuttack
  15. National University of Study and Research in Law, Ranchi
  16. National Law School and Judicial Academy, Assam, Guwahati
  17. Tamil Nadu National Law School, Srirangam 
  18. Maharashtra National Law University, Mumbai 
  19. Admission to LLB and LLM in most of the autonomous National law schools in India is based on performance in the highly competitive Common Law Admission Test (CLAT), with acceptance percentages being less than 1%. as per Official website of Universities, cut-off for BALLB first year, 2014, the ranking are as follows
      1. National Law School of India University, Bangalore
      2. NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad
      3. The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata
      4. National Law Institute University, Bhopal
      5. National Law University, Jodhpur, Jodhpur
      6. Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar
      7. Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow
      8. Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala
      9. Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur
      10. National Law University Odisha, Cuttack
      11. National University of Advanced Legal Studies, Kochi
      12. Chanakya National Law University, Patna
      13. Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University, Visakhapatnam
      14. Tamil Nadu National Law School, Srirangam
      15. National University of Study and Research in Law, Ranchi
      16. National Law School and Judicial Academy, Assam, Guwahati

Central University or Union University in India

A Central University or a Union University in India is established by Act of Parliament and are under the purview of the Department of Higher Education in the Union Human Resource Development Ministry. In general, universities in India are recognized by the University Grants Commission (UGC), which draws its power from the University Grants Commission Act, 1956. In addition, 15 Professional Councils are established, controlling different aspects of accreditation and coordination. Central universities, in addition, are covered by the Central Universities Act, 2009, which regulates their purpose, powers governance etc., and established 12 new universities. The list of central universities published by the UGC includes 46 central universities as on 20 May 2015.

The types of universities controlled by the UGC include:

• State universities are run by the state government of each of the states and territories of India, and are usually established by a local legislative assembly act.
• Deemed university, or "Deemed-to-be-University", is a status of autonomy granted by the Department of Higher Education on the advice of the UGC, under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956.
• Private universities are approved by the UGC. They can grant degrees but they are not allowed to have off-campus affiliated colleges.

Apart from the above universities, other institutions are granted the permission to autonomously award degrees. These institutes do not affiliate colleges and are not officially called "universities" but "autonomous organizations" or "autonomous institutes". They fall under the administrative control of the Department of Higher Education. These organizations include the Indian Institutes of Technology, theNational Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, the Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology, the Indian Institutes of Management (though these award diplomas, not degrees), the National Law Schools, the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, and other autonomous institutes.

The regions with the most central universities in India are Delhi (namely University of Delhi, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jawaharlal Nehru University, IGNOU),South Asian University and Uttar Pradesh with Five central universities each. There are central universities in all of the states of India except Goa and Andhra Pradesh. Of the union territories, there are central universities in Delhi and Puducherry.

UGC NET 2016 EXPECTED QUESTION-Sooranad Kunjan Pillai

Sooranad P. N. Kunjan Pillai is a historian, researcher, lexicographer, poet, essayist, literary critic, orator, socio-cultural leader,grammarian, educationist, and scholar of Malayalam language. In 1984 he was honoured with Padmashri award for his contribution to Malayalam literature and education.He was born to Neelakanta Pillai and Karthiyanipillai Amma on 26 November 1911 in Sooranad South in Kollam district. He married Bhagavathi Amma[of the panniyarathala family in Jagathy, d. 2007] in 1935. He is survived by three daughters and a son.Kunjan Pillai who was a versatile writer in Malayalam has written books in English and Sanskrit as well. He had knowledge in Tamil and Hindi too. He published his first work Smashanadeepam (Collected Poems) in 1925 when he was still in school. He has prepared more than 150 text books for High School classes. He has written more than 1000 forewords for the books of many contemporary writers of Malayalam. He has also written the Malayala nikhandu (Malayalam Dictionary).

He was given the title 'Sahithya Nipunan' by Kochi Maharajah. In 1984 he was honoured with Padmashri by Govt. of India. He received the Fellowship of Kerala Sahithya Academy and was made a Fellow of the History Association. He was honoured with D.Litt by the Meerut University in 1991 and University of Kerala in 1992. He received theVallathol Puraskaram in 1992 and the first Ezhuthachan Puraskaram instituted by Govt. of Kerala in 1994. His many contributions to art, society and culture and services rendered to the people of Kerala, India and the Sanskrit and Malayalam languages resulted in the bestowing of the second highest civilian award, the 'Padmashri' award to him in 1984.

works

• Amba Devi (Novel) 1930
• Kalyana Sowdam (Novel) 1936
• Smashanadeepam (Collected poems) 1930
• Hridayarpanam (Collected poems) 1971
• Ratnasamragyam (Stories)1948
• Sourabhan (Stories)1947
• Panchathantrakathamanigal (Stories)
• Prachinakeralam (Biographies)1931
• Veeraraghavashasanam (Biography) 1954
• Thiruvuthankoorile Mahanmar (Biographies) 1946
• Swathi Thirunal Maharaja(Biography)(English)
• Malabar in the Eyes of Travellers, 1940
• Sahithyabhooshanam (Collected Essays)
• Kairali Pooja (Collected Essays) 1962
• Pushpanjali (Collected Essays) 1957
• Mathrupooja (Collected Essays) 1954
• Kairali Samaksham (Literary Criticism)1979
• Bharathapooja, 1983
• Bhashadeepika, 1955
• Jeevithakala, 1939
• Krisishastram
• Thirumulkazcha, 1938
• Thiruvuthankoor - Kochi Charithra Kathakal, 1932
• Malayala Lipi parishkaram- Chila Nirdeshangal, 1967
• Sree Sankaracharyar (Biography) 1945
• Hridayaramam, 1966

Cherusseri Namboothiri - Malayalam poet in 1375 and 1475 AD.

Cherusseri Namboothiri (c. 1375 to 1475 AD) is the author of Krishna Gatha, a poem which is used in India for daily recitation as an act of worship of Krishna during the Malayalam month Chingam (August - September) by devout Keralites.Cherussery Namboodiri is believed to have lived between 1375 and 1475 AD. Cherussery 586 the name of his ancestral Illam (home). He was born in Kaanathoor village in Kolathunadu in Kannur Dist. in north Malabar. Many scholars think he is none other than Punathil Namboodiri.He was a court poet and dependent of Udayavarma Raja of Kolathunadu. His masterpiece is "Krishnagaathha" a long poem of epical dimensions written at the behest of the Raja. It is the first "Mahaakaavyam" in Malayalam. Udayavarma rewarded him with "Veerasrinkhala" and other honours. Some scholars think that he also wrote "Cherussery Bhaaratham". Cherussery is the originator of the "Gaathha" style of poetry in Malayalam. "Krishnagaathha" is the detailed description of the boyhood pranks of Lord Krishna based on the 10th canto of "Srimad Bhaagavatham". Cherusseri was known as king of poems .. The poem is considered a landmark in the development of Malayalam literature, . It describes the story of Lord krishna based on the Bhagavatham, an early Puranic text. Cherusseri was inspired by a lullaby and he followed its pattern for the composition of Krishna Gadha. Some scholars believe that he also wrote cherusserite Cherusseri Bharatham. But now it is proved that it was not written by the great .

His famous krishna gatha has 1600 lines which are devotional . The whole of this poem was written in the ' vritham ' Manjari .He was the court poet in the palace of the King Udayavarman of Kolathiri Desam.He wrote the poem according to the instruction of the king. This is the story where there is a lot of descriptions about Krishna's life after Mahabharata to the end of the life of yadavar who where the citizens of the kingdom dhawaraka.

Cherusseri Namboothiri (1500 AD) is the author of Krishnagatha, which is used for daily recitation as an act of worship of Krishna during the Malayalam month Chingam (August - September) by the devout Keralites, especially women. The sonorous poetry Krishnagatha depicts the exploits of Lord Krishna. It is said that the author was inspired by a lullaby sung by a mother to put her child to sleep. He followed the same metrical pattern for his composition. It is in Krishna Gatha, that we see a diction, which is similar to that of the present day. The theme deals with the story of Lord Krishna. The sweet and tender aspects of maternal love are wonderfully portrayed in this work. This work has been respected by the people of Kerala similar to Ezhuttacchan’s Adyatma Ramayana (Ezhuttacchan is known as the father of modern Malayalam literature). Cherusseri’s importance lies in his clear inclination towards native tongue, by which his poetry became popular among the people of Kerala. The author of ‘Krishna Gaatha’, Cherusseri Namboothiri - is well known to Keralites. It is presumed, hailing from the Namboothiri illam (residence of Namboothiri community) known as Cherusseri or Punam in Kurumbranaatu Taluk in Northern Kerala, he lived there sometime around the year 650 in Malayalam calendar. There aren’t much details recorded in history about the life of this poet. But if his ‘Krishna Gaatha’ is studied carefully we cannot ignore the fact that Cherusseri was a poet of deep aesthetic sense. More than that, few lines in the opening stanzas clarify that he was a court poet in the palace of the king Udayavarman, who then ruled the Kolaththiri Dhesam: “ Paalaazhi maaruthan paalichchu porunna Kolathu Nathan Udhayavarman Aajnaye cholliyaal ajnanaayullava njaan Praajnaayingane bhaavichchappol”. (When the king who rules the Kolath dhesam commands, the ignorant me pretend to be a talented one…) Doesn’t these lines proclaim his position as the court poet? Cherusseri Namboothiri’s living period has been decided based on the historical record of King Udayavarman’s period of reign. Other than ‘Krishna Gaatha’, ‘Bhaaratha Gaatha’ is also considered to be Cherusseri’s composition. ‘Krishna Gaatha’ is written in a melodious metre known as ‘manjari’. As there are lengthy beautiful descriptions with lavish use of adjectives throughout the poetical work, the composition is quite interesting and enjoyable. Feelings of passion, devotion, humor, and warmth are all discovered in a superior level, singly in natural style and with equal measure. Based on ‘Bhaagavatha Puraana’, it is inexplicable as to how well the entire life of Krishna including his attainment of heaven is discussed with so much devotion in this composition. It was not with as much boldness in language, but with gentleness in language that Cherusseri won the heart of Keralites and became the pride of the soil of Kerala. Shri.Chirakkal Balakrishnan Nair had made valuable contributions in the research works regarding Cherussery Namboothiri and his works. Chirakkal Balakrishnan Nair is considered as an authoritative source in the studies on Cherussery. Chirakkal's articles has been published by Kerala Sahitya Academy, Thrissur.

Vallathol Narayana Menon - poet in the Malayalam language

Vallathol Narayana Menon (16 October 1878 – 13 March 1958) was a poet in the Malayalam language, which is spoken in the south Indian state of Kerala. He was one of the triumvirate poets of modern Malayalam, along with Kumaran Asan and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer. The honorific Mahakavi (Malayalam: "great poet") was applied to him in 1913 after the publication of his Mahakavya Chitrayogam.He was a nationalist poet and wrote a series of poems on various aspects of Indian freedom movement. He also wrote against caste restriction, tyrannies and orthodoxies. He founded the Kerala Kalamandalam and is credited with revitalising the traditional Keralite dance form known as Kathakali.

Vallathol was born in Chenara, near Ponnani, in Malappuram District, Kerala, as the son of Kadungotte Mallisseri Damodaran Elayathu and Kuttipparu Amma. He did not receive any formal education but was trained in Sanskrit language, first under the Sanskrit scholar Variyam Parambil Kunjan Nair and then under his own uncle Ramunni Menon, who introduced him into the world of Sanskrit poetry. Ramunni Menon also taught him Ashtanga Hridayam, a medical treatise, and young Narayana Menon soon began helping his uncle in medical practice and teaching. He also trained for an year under Parakkulam Subrahmanya Sastri and Kaikkulangara Rama Variar in Philosophy and Logic. He married Vanneri Chittazhiveettil Madhavi Amma in November 1901 and shifted to Thrissur, the cultural capital of Kerala. He worked as manager in the Kalpadrumam Press in Thrissur from 1905 to 1910. During this period, his hearing began to deteriorate. From 1915, he started working in Keralodayam newspaper and later joined Atma Poshini, a journal published from Thrissur.

He started writing poems from the age of twelve. Kiratha Satakam and Vyasavataram were his earliest published works. He won Bhashaposhini magazine's poetry award in 1894. His poems began appearing in Bhashaposhini, Kerala Sanchari and Vijnana Chintamani magazines. His first major literary ventures was a rendition of Valmiki's Ramayana into Malayalam, the work of which started in 1905 and took two years to complete. Unlike some of his contemporaries, Vallathol did not have any acquaintance with English language. He earned the title Mahakavi after the publication of the Mahakavya Chitrayogam in 1913. Chitrayogam conformed to all the principles of a traditionalMahakavya and was divided into 18 Sargas. The story of Chandrasena and Taravali, taken from Kathasaritsagara, was the theme of this poetry work. Vallathol portrayed the protest of Parvati against Siva in the work Gangapati (1913) and of Usha defying her father for the sake of her love in Bandhanasthanaya Anirudhan (1914). In 1917, the first of his eleven-volume work Sahitya Manjari (A Bouquet of Literature) was published. These volumes, published from 1917 to 1970, contain his collected short romantic poems dealing with a variety of themes. Many of these poems earlier appeared in P. V. Krishna Variar's Kavanakaumudi magazine. His khanda kavya on Mary Magdalene titledMagdalana Mariam paved the way for a new tradition in of Christian symbolism in Malayalam. The poet's own struggle with deafness from his early twenties features in the work Badhiravilapam. Other celebrated short poems of Vallathol include Sishyanum Makanum, Virasinkala, Achanum Makalum, Divaswapnam and Ente Gurukulam.

In addition to subjects from nature and the lives of ordinary people, Vallathol's opposition to the indignities of the caste system and the injustices suffered by the poor form the themes of many of his poems. He is also regarded as the greatest nationalist poet of the language. He was one of the triumvirate poets of modern Malayalam, along with Kumaran Asan and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer. Literary critic K. M. George has noted that, together with Kumaran Asan, Vallathol was "responsible for bringing about a revolutionary change in Malayalam poetry in the [nineteen]-twenties. Asan concentrated on social themes and Vallathol championed the national movement; yet both made very significant contributions to the khandkavya, ie: the short poem of the lyrical type."

He was awarded Padma Bhushan title, India's third highest civilian award, in 1954.

• Abhivadyam
• Achanum Makalum
• Allah
• Badhiravilapam
• Bandhanasthanaya Anirudhan
• Bapuji
• Bhaval Sthotramala
• Chitrayogam
• Dandakaranyam
• Divaswapnam
• Ente Gurunathan
• Indiayude Karachil
• Kavya Manjusha
• Kochu Seetha
• Magdalana Mariam
• Naagila
• Oru Kunju Athava Rugminiyude Pashchathapam
• Onapputava
• Oushadhaharanam
• Patmadalam
• Paralokam
• Randaksharam
• Rakshasakrithyam Kilippattu
• Ritu Vilasam
• Russiayil
• Saranamayyappa
• Sishyanum Makanum
• Sahitya Manjari - 11 Volumes
• Sthree
• Vallathol Sudha - Two Volumes
• Vallatholinte Khandakavyangal
• Vallatholinte Padyakrithikal
• Vilasa Lathika
• Vishukkani
• Veera Sringala
• Arogya Chinthamani (Health)
• Garbha Chikitsakramam (Health)
• Granthaviharam (Study)
• Prasanga Vediyil (Speech)
• Vallatholinte Granthaniroopanangalum Prasangalum(Study)
• Vallathol Kathukal (Letters)
• Vallathol Samagrapatanam (Study)

ugc net exam question- Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer

Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer (6 June 1877 – 15 June 1949) (commonly known as Ulloor) was a Malayalam poet and historian. He was one of the triumvirate poets of Kerala in the first half of the 20th century, along with Kumaran Asan and Vallathol Narayana Menon.

Ulloor was born at the Thamarassery Illam at Perunnai, Changanassery. Since his ancestral home was at Ulloor, he came to be known as Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer. His father died when he was young and his mother raised him. He graduated with Honors in Philosophy from Maharajas College and joined the Travancore State Services. Later he took Degree in Law and Master's in Malayalam and Tamil.He was later appointed as the income tax officer and then as the Chief Secretary.

Ulloor published his mahakavya Umakeralam in 1914. Until then, only Pandalam Kerala Varma's Rukmamgadacharitham was considered as a complete mahakavya in Malayalam. Some of his other best known works were Pingala, Karnabhooshanam,Bhakthideepika, and Chithrasala.

After Ulloor's death, University of Kerala published one of his most noted works Kerala Sahitya Charithram, which describes the history of Malayalam language, culture, and literature. He studied ancient literature and palm leaf manuscripts to bring out old literary works such as Rama Charitham poem and Doothavakyam prose

The Indian Posts and Telegraph department released a commemorative stamp after Ulloor's death.A full size statue of Ulloor was unveiled by the Indian President Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy in Thiruvananthapuram on 15 May 1981.

What is Developmental psychology ?

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including: motor skills, cognitive development, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.

Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, and processes of change in context and across time. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual's behavior and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development.

Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as, educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. Several influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.

Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society.

The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).

Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.

Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process. The preconscious involves information that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of.

He believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three personality structures: the id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.

Based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the child's psychosexual energy. The first is the oral stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage "the libido is centered in a baby's mouth." The baby is able to suck. The second is theanal stage, from one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus. The third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person’s personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child is aware of their sexual organs. The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed. Stage five is the genital stage, which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty starts happening.

Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.

He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and postconventional moral reasoning. Preconventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, postconventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society’s rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.

Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.

Erik Erikson reinterpreted Freud’s psychosexual stages by incorporating the social aspects of it. He came up with eight stages, each of which has two crisis (a positive and a negative). Stage one is trust versus mistrust, which occurs during infancy. Stage two is autonomy versus shame and doubt, which occurs during early childhood. Stage three isinitiative versus guilt, which occurs during play age. Stage four is industry versus inferiority, which occurs during school age. Stage five is identity versus identity diffusion, which occurs during adolescence. Stage six is intimacy versus isolation which occurs during young adulthood. Stage seven is generativity versus self-absorption which occurs during adulthood. Lastly, stage eight is integrity versus despair, which occurs in old age.

Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future. However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage.

Erik Erikson proposed his stages of psychosocial development to discuss the psychological development of the human lifespan. Sigmund Freud's stages of development focused on psychosexual development, while Erikson's theory focused on psychosocial development. Erikson's theory claimed that humans develop throughout their lifespan and consists of eight stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.

2015- 2016 UGC NET EXAM QUESTION -Bishop Robert Caldwell

Bishop Robert Caldwell (7 May 1814 – 28 August 1891) was a missionary and linguist, who academically established the Dravidian family of languages. He served as Assistant Bishop of Tirunelveli from 1877. He was described in The Hindu as a 'pioneering champion of the downtrodden' and an 'avant-garde social reformer'. The Government of Tamil Nadu has created a memorial in his honour and a postage stamp has been issued in his name. On the Madras Marina, a statue of Caldwell was erected as a gift of the Church of South India in 1967.Robert Caldwell was born at Clady, then in County Antrim, Ireland, on 7 May 1814 to poor Scottish Presbyterian parents. The family moved to Glasgow and there he began work at the age of nine. Mostly self-taught, he returned to Ireland aged 15, living with an older brother in Dublin while studying art between 1829-33. He then returned to Glasgow, probably as a consequence of a crisis of faith, and he became active in the Congregational church.

Caldwell won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford only to find it rescinded when the authorities discovered that he had been born in Ireland. He responded by joining the London Missionary Society, who sent him to the University of Glasgow for training. There Caldwell came under the influence of Daniel Keyte Sandford, a professor of Greek and promoter of Anglicanism whose innovative research encouraged Caldwell's liking for comparative philology and also theology. Caldwell left university with a distinction and was ordained as a Congregationalist minister.

At 24, Caldwell arrived in Madras on 8 January 1838 as a missionary of the London Missionary Society and later joined the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Mission (SPG). To further his missionary objectives, Caldwell realised that he had to be proficient in Tamil to proselytise the masses and he began a systematic study of the language. He was consecrated Bishop of Tirunelveli in 1877. In 1844, Caldwell married Eliza Mault (1822–99); the couple was to have seven children together. She was the younger daughter of the veteran Travancore missionary, Reverend Charles Mault (1791–1858) of the London Missionary Society. For more than forty years, Eliza worked in (iidaiyankoodi) and Tirunelveli proselytising the people, especially Tamil-speaking women.

2015 ugc net exam question.Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar -

Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar (1736–1799) is the author of Varthamanappusthakam (1790), the first ever travelogue in an Indian language. Varthamanapusthakam postulates that the foundation of Indian nationalism rests on the basic principle that India should be ruled by Indians. Long before the debates on nationalism shaking the intellectual circles of Europe Asia and Africa, Thoma Kathanar vehemently argued that foreigners should be kept away from India and that it should be ruled only by Indians. He was Administrator (Governador) of the Archeparchy of Cranganore from 1786 till his death.

He was also a polyglot, an efficient administrator and a Syro-Malabar Catholic Church priest of Kerala who tried to bring about unity in the Church and also to maintain its unique heritage.

Paremmakkal Thoma was born as the fourth child of Paremmakkal Itty Chandy and Anna of Kadanad in Kottayam district on 10 September 1736. Initially he studied Sanskrit and Syriac from teachers nearby. Then he joined Alengad Seminary to learn Latin and Portuguese and for priesthood. In 1761, he was ordained as a Kathanar (priest). He served as vicar in different churches up to 1778.

Thomma Kathanar made tireless efforts to bring about unity in the Church in Kerala which had split following the Coonan Cross Oath. He also strived to get bishops from among the members of the Catholic Church in Kerala, and also to retain the rich heritage of the Malabar Church. In order to achieve those goals he undertook a hard and perilous journey to Rome in 1778 along with Kariattil Mar Ousep Malpan.

The description of this journey is recorded in his book Varthamanapusthakam, considered to be the first travelogue among all Indian languages. The historic journey to Rome to represent the grievances of Kerala's Syrian Catholics started from the boat jetty in Athirampuzha in 1785. From Athirampuzha they first proceeded to Kayamkulam by a country-boat. The journey then took them to Chinnapattanam, as Chennai was then known. From there they went to Kandy in Ceylon (Sri Lanka of today). From Ceylon they sailed to Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa. They were to sail to Portugal from there but adverse winds drifted their ship in the Atlantic Ocean taking it to the coast of Latin America. A further journey from the Latin American coast took them to their destination.

The journey to the destination took more than a year. While they were in Europe, Kariattil Mar Ousep was ordained in Portugal as the Bishop of Kodungalloor Archeparchy. The two representatives of the Kerala Catholic Church succeeded in convincing the church authorities in Rome and Lisbon about the problems in Kerala Church. On their way back home they stayed in Goa where Mar Kariattil died. Upon realizing that his end was near, Mar Kariattil appointed Thoma Kathanar as the Governador (governor) of Cranganore Archdiocese after him, and handed over the cross, chain and ring, the tokens of his power, which had been presented to him by the Portuguese queen.

The new Governador administered the affairs of the church establishing his headquarters at Angamaly. In 1792, the headquarters of the Archdiocese had to be shifted to Vadayar because of the attacks of Tippu Sultan. In the last four years of his life, Thoma Kathanar managed church administration from his own parish, Ramapuram.

The history of travelogues in Malayalam is short but exciting and absorbing. The first work in the genre Varthamapusthakam was written by P. Thoma Kathanar (1736–99) in the latter part of the eighteenth century but its existence was totally forgotten by later generations. It was discovered in 1935 and was printed next year. Sankaran Namboothiri informs that Kathanar accompanied K. Yausep Malpan in his journey from Parur to Rome. They went by foot up to Madras from where they sailed. They took along route via Cape of Good Hope, South America and Lisbon. The voyage lasted nearly eight years." It is-certainly one of the most valuable travel accounts available in any Indian language.

Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar remained the Governador for thirteen years. He died on 20 March 1799.

Vathamanapusthakam was first published in the 18th century but was forgotten for centuries, being re-discovered in 1935 and first printed in Malayalam in 1936 by Luka Mathai Plathottam at Athirampuzha St Marys Press.  The manuscript of the book is kept at the St Thomas Christian Museum in Kochi.

2015-2016 UGC NET EXAM QUESTIONS -Romanticism in Literature

Romanticism (also the Romantic era or the Romantic period) was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, and while for much of the Romantic period it was associated with liberalism and radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was perhaps more significant.

The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe—especially that which is experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of nature. It considered folk art and ancient custom to be noble statuses, but also valued spontaneity, as in the musical impromptu. In contrast to the rational and Classicist ideal models, Romanticism revived medievalismand elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, urban sprawl, and industrialism.

Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the events and ideologies of the French Revolution were also proximate factors. Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of "heroic" individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.The decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism.

Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the starting point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that "the artist's feeling is his law".To William Wordsworth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which the poet then "recollect[s] in tranquility," evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art. In order to express these feelings, it was considered that the content of the art needed to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial" rules dictating what a work should consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws which the imagination, at least of a good creative artist, would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone to do so. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator's own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of "creation from nothingness", is key to Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin.This idea is often called "romantic originality.

Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe that a close connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".

According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals.

2016 NET EXAM EXPECTED QUESTION- Lyrical Ballads

Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems is a collection of poems by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, first published in 1798 and generally considered to have marked the beginning of the English Romantic movement in literature. The immediate effect on critics was modest, but it became and remains a landmark, changing the course of English literature and poetry.

Most of the poems in the 1798 edition were written by Wordsworth, with Coleridge contributing only five poems to the collection, including one of his most famous works, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner".

A second edition was published in 1800, in which Wordsworth included additional poems and a preface detailing the pair's avowed poetical principles. For another edition, published in 1802, Wordsworth added an appendix titled Poetic Diction in which he expanded the ideas set forth in the preface.

Wordsworth and Coleridge set out to overturn what they considered the priggish, learned and highly sculpted forms of 18th century English poetry and bring poetry within the reach of the average person by writing the verses using normal, everyday language. They place an emphasis on the vitality of the living voice that the poor use to express their reality. Using this language also helps assert the universality of human emotions. Even the title of the collection recalls rustic forms of art – the word "lyrical" links the poems with the ancient rustic bards and lends an air of spontaneity, while "ballads" are an oral mode of storytelling used by the common people.

In the 'Advertisement' included in the 1798 edition, Wordsworth explained his poetical concept:

The majority of the following poems are to be considered as experiments. They were written chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the language of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society is adapted to the purpose of poetic pleasure.

If the experiment with vernacular language was not enough of a departure from the norm, the focus on simple, uneducated country people as the subject of poetry was a signal shift to modern literature. One of the main themes of "Lyrical Ballads" is the return to the original state of nature, in which people led a purer and more innocent existence. Wordsworth subscribed to Rousseau's belief that humanity was essentially good but was corrupted by the influence of society. This may be linked with the sentiments spreading through Europe just prior to the French Revolution.

10 set exam question in 2013

1. In which year was the King James Version of the Bible first published? 
A) 1526 B) 1535 C) 1539 D) 1611

 2. To which of the following does Gorboduc belong? 
A) Morality Plays B) Senecan Tragedy C) Farce D) Aristotelian Tragedy

 3. The Parliament of Fowls was written by ----------.
 A) Chaucer B) Philip Sidney C) Shakespeare D) John Fletcher 

4. The first story in the Canterbury Tales sequence is ------------. 
A) The Miller’s Tale B) The Wife of Bath’s Tale C) The Knight’s Tale D) The Squire’s Tale

5. Who among the following was described as the “poets’ poet” by the Romantics?
 A) Ben Jonson B) Edmund Spenser C) Philip Sidney D) John Milton 

6. Who is the author of the prose romance, Arcadia? 
A) Robert Sidney B) Philip Sidney C) Edmund Spenser D) Thomas More

 7. “. . . a thought to Donne was an experience. It modified his sensibility.” Whose words are these? A) Samuel Johnson B) Matthew Arnold C) T. S. Eliot D) John Dryden 

8. Tottel’s Miscellany is a 16th century collection of ----------.
 A) Poetic works B) Essays C) Drama D) Short stories 

9. The Chester, York, Wakefield cycles of plays refer to the ---------- of the 14th century. 
A) Masques B) Interludes C) Morality plays D) Miracle plays 

10. “. . . his laboring brain/Begets a world of idle fantasies/To overreach the devil.” Who is being referred to here?
 A) Faustus B) Gaveston C) Barabas D) Tamburlaine

2015 UGC NET EXPECTED QUESTION -Niranam poets

Niranam is a small village in southern Kerala, India, near to the town of Thiruvalla. In the 14th century, it was the birthplace of three generations of poets from the same family who became known as the Niranam or Kannassan poets, being Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar. They were influenced by the Bhakti movement. As Panikkars, they were probably akin to members of the Nayar caste, which makes their claim to mastery of Sanskrit a significant feature because they would have been classed as Shudra in the Brahmanical system of ritual ranking known as varna. Shudras were not supposed to be familiar with that priestly language. They lived between AD 1350 and 1450.